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　　考研英語新東方寫作范文：evolution of sleep

　　sleep is very ancient. in the electroencephalographic sense we share it with all the primates and almost all the other mammals and birds: it may extend back as far as the reptiles.

　　there is some evidence that the two types of sleep, dreaming and dreamless, depend on the life-style of the animal, and that predators are statistically much more likely to dream than prey, which are in turn much more likely to experience dreamless sleep. in dream sleep, the animal is powerfully immobilized and remarkably unresponsive to external stimuli. dreamless sleep is much shallower, and we have all witnessed cats or dogs cocking their ears to a sound when apparently fast asleep. the fact that deep dream sleep is rare among pray today seems clearly to be a product of natural selection, and it makes sense that today, when sleep is highly evolved, the stupid animals are less frequently immobilized by deep sleep than the smart ones. but why should they sleep deeply at all? why should a state of such deep immobilization ever have evolved?

　　perhaps one useful hint about the original function of sleep is to be found in the fact that dolphins and whales and aquatic mammals in genera seem to sleep very little. there is, by and large, no place to hide in the ocean. could it be that, rather than increasing an animal’s vulnerability, the university of florida and ray middies of london university have suggested this to be the case. it is conceivable that animals who are too stupid to be quite on their own initiative are, during periods of high risk, immobilized by the implacable arm of sleep. the point seems particularly clear for the young of predatory animals. this is an interesting notion and probably at least partly true.

　　before the 1850’s, the united states had a number of small colleges, most of them dating from colonial days. they were small, church connected institutions whose primary concern was to shape the moral character of their students.

　　throughout europe, institutions of higher learning had developed, bearing the ancient name of university. in german university was concerned primarily with creating and spreading knowledge, not morals. between mid-century and the end of the 1800’s, more than nine thousand young americans, dissatisfied with their training at home, went to germany for advanced study. some of them return to become presidents of venerable colleges-----harvard, yale, columbia---and transform them into modern universities. the new presidents broke all ties with the churches and brought in a new kind of faculty. professors were hired for their knowledge of a subject, not because they were of the proper faith and had a strong arm for disciplining students. the new principle was that a university was to create knowledge as well as pass it on, and this called for a faculty composed of teacher-scholars. drilling and learning by rote were replaced by the german method of lecturing, in which the professor’s own research was presented in class. graduate training leading to the ph.d., an ancient german degree signifying the highest level of advanced scholarly attainment, was introduced. with the establishment of the seminar system, graduate student learned to question, analyze, and conduct their own research.

　　at the same time, the new university greatly expanded in size and course offerings, breaking completely out of the old, constricted curriculum of mathematics, classics, rhetoric, and music. the president of harvard pioneered the elective system, by which students were able to choose their own course of study. the notion of major fields of study emerged. the new goal was to make the university relevant to the real pursuits of the world. paying close heed to the practical needs of society, the new universities trained men and women to work at its tasks, with engineering students being the most characteristic of the new regime. students were also trained as economists, architects, agriculturalists, social welfare workers, and teachers.

　　考研英語新東方寫作范文：war between britain and france

　　In the late eighteenth century, battles raged in almost every corner of Europe, as well as in the Middle East, South Africa, the West Indies, and Latin America. In reality, however, there was only one major war during this time, the war between Britain and France. All other battles were ancillary to this larger conflict, and were often at least partially related to its antagonist’ goals and strategies. France sought total domination of Europe. This goal was obstructed by British independence and Britain’s efforts throughout the continent to thwart Napoleon; through treaties. Britain built coalitions (not dissimilar in concept to today’s NATO) guaranteeing British participation in all major European conflicts. These two antagonists were poorly matched, insofar as they had very unequal strengths; France was predominant on land, Britain at sea. The French knew that, short of defeating the British navy, their only hope of victory was to close all the ports of Europe to British ships. Accordingly, France set out to overcome Britain by extending its military domination from Moscow t Lisbon, from Jutland to Caldaria. All of this entailed tremendous risk, because France did not have the military resources to control this much territory and still protect itself and maintain order at home.

　　French strategists calculated that a navy of 150 ships would provide the force necessary to defeat the British navy. Such a force would give France a three-to-two advantage over Britain. This advantage was deemed necessary because of Britain’s superior sea skills and technology because of Britain’s superior sea skills and technology, and also because Britain would be fighting a defensive war, allowing it to win with fewer forces. Napoleon never lost substantial impediment to his control of Europe. As his force neared that goal, Napoleon grew increasingly impatient and began planning an immediate attack.

　　考研英語新東方寫作范文：the nobel academy

　　For the last 82years, Sweden’s Nobel Academy has decided who will receive the Nobel Prize in Literature, thereby determining who will be elevated from the great and the near great to the immortal. But today the Academy is coming under heavy criticism both from the without and from within. Critics contend that the selection of the winners often has less to do with true writing ability than with the peculiar internal politics of the Academy and of Sweden itself. According to Ingmar Bjorksten, the cultural editor for one of the country’s two major newspapers, the prize continues to represent "what people call a very Swedish exercise: reflecting Swedish tastes."

　　The Academy has defended itself against such charges of provincialism in its selection by asserting that its physical distance from the great literary capitals of the world actually serves to protect the Academy from outside influences. This may well be true, but critics respond that this very distance may also be responsible for the Academy’s inability to perceive accurately authentic trends in the literary world.

　　Regardless of concerns over the selection process, however, it seems that the prize will continue to survive both as an indicator of the literature that we most highly praise, and as an elusive goal that writers seek. If for no other reason, the prize will continue to be desirable for the financial rewards that accompany it; not only is the cash prize itself considerable, but it also dramatically increases sales of an author’s books.

　　考研英語新東方寫作范文：a rare fossil record

　　The preservation of embryos and juveniles is a rate occurrence in the fossil record. The tiny, delicate skeletons are usually scattered by scavengers or destroyed by weathering before they can be fossilized. Ichthyosaurs had a higher chance of being preserved than did terrestrial creatures because, as marine animals, they tended to live in environments less subject to erosion. Still, their fossilization required a suite of factors: a slow rate of decay of soft tissues, little scavenging by other animals, a lack of swift currents and waves to jumble and carry away small bones, and fairly rapid burial. Given these factors, some areas have become a treasury of well-preserved ichthyosaur fossils.

　　The deposits at Holzmaden, Germany, present an interesting case for analysis. The ichthyosaur remains are found in black, bituminous marine shales deposited about 190 million years ago. Over the years, thousands of specimens of marine reptiles, fish and invertebrates have been recovered from these rocks. The quality of preservation is outstanding, but what is even more impressive is the number of ichthyosaur fossils containing preserved embryos. Ichthyosaurs with embryos have been reported from 6 different levels of the shale in a small area around Holzmaden, suggesting that a specific site was used by large numbers of ichthyosaurs repeatedly over time. The embryos are quite advanced in their physical development; their paddles, for example, are already well formed. One specimen is even preserved in the birth canal. In addition, the shale contains the remains of many newborns that are between 20 and 30 inches long.

　　Why are there so many pregnant females and young at Holzmaden when they are so rare elsewhere? The quality of preservation is almost unmatched and quarry operations have been carried out carefully with an awareness of the value of the fossils. But these factors do not account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth.

　　考研英語新東方寫作范文：skyscrapers and environment

　　in the late 1960’s, many people in north america turned their attention to environmental problems, and new steel-and-glass skyscrapers were widely criticized. ecologists pointed out that a cluster of tall buildings in a city often overburdens public transportation and parking lot capacities.

　　skyscrapers are also lavish consumers, and wasters, of electric power. in one recent year, the addition of 17 million square feet of skyscraper office space in new york city raised the peak daily demand for electricity by 120, 000 kilowatts-enough to supply the entire city of albany, new york, for a day.

　　glass-walled skyscrapers can be especially wasteful. the heat loss (or gain)through a wall of half-inch plate glass is more than ten times that through a typical masonry wall filled with insulation board. to lessen the strain on heating and air-conditioning equipment, builders of skyscrapers have begun to use double-glazed panels of glass, and reflective glasses coated with silver or gold mirror films that reduce glare as well as heat gain. however, mirror-walled skyscrapers raise the temperature of the surrounding air and affect neighboring buildings.

　　skyscrapers put a severe strain on a city’s sanitation facilities, too. if fully occupied, the two world trade center towers in new york city would alone generate 2.25 million gallons of raw sewage each year-as much as a city the size of stanford, connecticut , which has a population of more than 109, 000.