托福閱讀TPO13(試題+答案+譯文)第1篇:TypesofSocialGroups
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托福閱讀原文
Life places us in a complex web of relationships with other people. Our humanness arises out of these relationships in the course of social interaction. Moreover, our humanness must be sustained through social interaction—and fairly constantly so. When an association continues long enough for two people to become linked together by a relatively stable set of expectations, it is called a relationship.
People are bound within relationships by two types of bonds: expressive ties and instrumental ties. Expressive ties are social links formed when we emotionally invest ourselves in and commit ourselves to other people. Through association with people who are meaningful to us, we achieve a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship, and personal worth. Instrumental ties are social links formed when we cooperate with other people to achieve some goal. Occasionally, this may mean working with instead of against competitors. More often, we simply cooperate with others to reach some end without endowing the relationship with any larger significance.
Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions.
A number of conditions enhance the likelihood that primary groups will arise. First, group size is important. We find it difficult to get to know people personally when they are milling about and dispersed in large groups. In small groups we have a better chance to initiate contact and establish rapport with them. Second, face-to-face contact allows us to size up others. Seeing and talking with one another in close physical proximity makes possible a subtle exchange of ideas and feelings. And third, the probability that we will develop primary group bonds increases as we have frequent and continuous contact. Our ties with people often deepen as we interact with them across time and gradually evolve interlocking habits and interests.
Primary groups are fundamental to us and to society. First, primary groups are critical to the socialization process. Within them, infants and children are introduced to the ways of their society. Such groups are the breeding grounds in which we acquire the norms and values that equip us for social life. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity.
Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is.
Third, primary groups are fundamental because they serve as powerful instruments for social control. Their members command and dispense many of the rewards that are so vital to us and that make our lives seem worthwhile. Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others are forbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. Even more important, primary groups define social reality for us by structuring our experiences. By providing us with definitions of situations, they elicit from our behavior that conforms to group-devised meanings. Primary groups, then, serve both as carriers of social norms and as enforcers of them.
托福閱讀試題
1.The word “complex”(Paragraph 1)in the passage is closest in meaning to
A.delicate
B.elaborate
C.private
D.common
2.According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of a relationship?
A. It is a structure of associations with many people.
B. It should be studied in the course of a social interaction.
C. It places great demands on people.
D. It develops gradually overtime.
3.The word endowing in the passage(Paragraph 2)is closest in meaning to
A.leaving
B.exposing
C. providing
D. understanding
4.Which of the following can be inferred about instrumental ties from the author's mention of working with competitors in paragraph 2?
A. Instrumental ties can develop even in situations in which people would normally not cooperate.
B.Instrumental ties require as much emotional investment as expressive ties.
C. Instrumental ties involve security, love, and acceptance.
D.Instrumental ties should be expected to be significant.
5.According to paragraph 3, what do sociologists see as the main difference between primary and secondary groups?
A.Primary groups consist of people working together, while secondary groups exist outside of work settings.
B. In primary groups people are seen as means, while in secondary groups people are seen as ends.
C. Primary groups involve personal relationships, while secondary groups are mainly practical in purpose.
D.Primary groups are generally small, while secondary groups often contain more than two people.
6.Which of the following can be inferred from the author's claim in paragraph 3 that primary group relationships sometimes evolve out of secondary group relationships?
A.Secondary group relationships begin by being primary group relationships.
B.A secondary group relationship that is highly visible quickly becomes a primary group relationship.
C.Sociologists believe that only primary group relationships are important to society.
D. Even in secondary groups, frequent communication serves to bring people into close relationships.
7.The phrase “size up” in the passage(Paragraph 4)is closest in meaning to
A.enlarge
B.evaluate
C. impress
D. accept
8.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence(Paragraph 5)in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A.Sociologists think that cultural patterns establish connections between the individual and the larger society.
B.Sociologists believe that individuals with a sense of oneness bridge the gap between society and primary groups.
C.Sociologists think primary groups contribute to social solidarity because they help maintain a society's cultural patterns.
D.Sociologists believe that the cultural patterns that provide social solidarity arise as bridges from primary groups.
9.This passage is developed primarily by
A.drawing comparisons between theory and practice
B.presenting two opposing theories
C.defining important concepts and providing examples of them
D.discussing causes and their effects
10.The word “deviate” in the passage(Paragraph 7)is closest in meaning to
A.detract
B.advance
C.select
D.depart
11.According to paragraph 7, why would a social group use shunning?
A.To enforce practice of the kinds of behavior acceptable to the group
B.To discourage offending individuals from remaining in the group
C.To commend and reward the behavior of the other members of the group
D.To decide which behavioral norms should be passed on to the next generation
12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. People who do not live alone, for example, tend to make healthier life choices and develop fewer pathologies than people who live by themselves. Where would the sentence best fit?
Second, primary groups are fundamental because they provide the settings in which we meet most of our personal needs. ■【A】Within them, we experience companionship, love, security, and an overall sense of well-being. ■【B】Not surprisingly, sociologists find that the strength of a group's primary ties has implications for the group's functioning. ■【C】For example, the stronger the primary group ties of a sports team playing together, the better their record is. ■【D】
13.Directions: Complete the table below by selecting three answer choices that are characteristics of primary groups and two answer choices that are characteristics of secondary groups. This question is worth 3 points.
A.Developing socially acceptable behavior
B. Working together against competitors
C.Experiencing pressure from outside forces
D.Viewing people as a means to an end
E.Existing for practical purposes
F.Providing meaning for life situations
G.Involving close relationships
1 )
Primary Groups
A B C D E F G
2 )
Secondary Groups
A B C D E F G
托福閱讀答案
1.complex復雜的，所以B的elaborate正確。原句說生活把我們放在什么樣的與其他人的關系網(wǎng)中，因為很多人，所以關系網(wǎng)比較復雜正確。A的delicate脆弱的，纖細的，美味的;C的私人和D的普通都不靠譜
2.以relationship做關鍵詞定位至最后一句，注意relationships不能做關鍵詞，因為多次重復出現(xiàn)。原句說當這種association持續(xù)的時間足夠長以至于兩個人之間已經(jīng)形成了穩(wěn)定的expectation，就叫relationship，所以D說隨時間develop正確。A的many people，B的study，C的demand都沒說
3.endow賦予，捐助，所以provide提供，供給正確。原句說有時候我們與其他人合作只是做完某事，卻沒有任何significance，猜到這個詞應該是有的意思，只有provide和leave表示有，但leave是剩下，所以不對。至于B暴露D理解完全不對
4.以competitor做關鍵詞定位至倒數(shù)第二句，說偶爾這意味著與競爭對手合作而非競爭，而這個this意味著這句話跟前一句有聯(lián)系。前一句說instrumental ties是我們在與別人合作達到某種目的的時候形成的，這與A說的通常不合作的人也有形成instrumental完全一樣。B沒說，C與原文的第三句說反，D與原文最后一句說反
5.分別以primary group和secondary group做關鍵詞定位至第二句和第四句，分別說了兩個group，primary的是比較親密的，secondary是因為事先某種共同的目的才形成的，所以答案是C。A錯，不是用work來區(qū)分這兩個group的;兩者同樣不是以人數(shù)區(qū)分的，所以D錯;C的end不end是原文在后面才說的，也不能區(qū)分這兩個group
6.以evolve out of做關鍵詞定位至倒數(shù)第三句，但這句話跟問題幾乎是完全一樣的，所以不是答案。往后看，this標示著上下句之間有聯(lián)系。下句說這種evolve發(fā)生在工作背景下，接著說同事之間可以通過share各種東西變成非常親密的朋友，也就是secondary變primary 的一個例子，所以正確答案是D。A說反;B和C均沒說而且C有違常識
7.size up估量，估計，所以正確答案是B的evaluate。原句說面對面交流使得我們能夠怎么樣別人，評價別人是正確的。A的擴大別人明顯是不對的。原文沒說接受別人，也沒說給別人留下印象，所以都不對
8.原文的結構是sociologist把primary group看成blabla，因為blabla。只有C表達了原因，A缺了原文的很多信息，錯;B和D都缺失了原文很重要的because部分，所以都是錯的
9.問本文的組織結構，問全文的題應該多關注各段的開頭。原文首先提出了兩個關系，然后又說expressive tie和instrumental tie，最后又說了primary group產(chǎn)生的條件。敘述兩類關系用的筆墨明顯不等，所以不是對比，所以B不對，A的理論和實踐原文完全沒說，而且也說到了對比，也不對;D的因果是原文完全沒說的。作者定義了兩個group和兩個tie，所以C說定義概念是對的，而且作者在定義概念之后都有解釋，所以C正確
10.deviate偏離，出軌，所以正確答案是D的depart偏離。原句說一旦獎勵不行，group的成員可以威脅排斥那些怎么樣規(guī)則的人，肯定是對規(guī)則不好的人，所以advance和中性的select不對;detract表示減損或者轉移，跟depart所表示的離經(jīng)叛道是兩個意思，所以不對
11.以shunning做關鍵詞定位至第四句，說人們會用shunning吧離經(jīng)叛道的人弄回來，但沒給出原因。這句中的for example說明是上句的例子，前面一句說如果獎勵不行，我們就排斥那些不守規(guī)矩的人，所以一切都是為了強化規(guī)則，答案是A。B說不鼓勵冒犯group當中的人，原文沒說冒犯人;C的reward和D的next generation都沒說
12.兩個過渡點，分別是連詞for example和名詞healthier life choices，根據(jù)for example排除C和D，因為原文也有for example，而正常說話的時候兩個for example是不連續(xù)使用的;而且根據(jù)healthier life choices跟原文中sense of well-being的同義替換也可以確定是A或者B，但A點后的them與前文銜接緊密，所以答案是B
13.此題不典型，因為作者用了文章的第四到七段較大篇幅講primary，卻只用了第二和第三段的部分講到secondary，而且本文對于兩個group的敘述存在交叉，交叉的部分主要在第二三兩段，但這兩段的敘述也是先primary后secondary，所以順序性還是有的。第三段的四五兩句分別對應existing和viewing兩個答案，所以這兩個答案屬于secondary;第二段和第三段的第三句對應providing答案，第三段第二句對應involving答案，最后一段的第三句和第四句對應developing選項，結合11題的答案很容易選出這項
托福閱讀譯文
我們和他人一起生活在一個復雜的關系網(wǎng)中。我們的人性就產(chǎn)生于這種社會性的互動關系中，與此同時，我們的人性也必須通過經(jīng)常性的社會互動才能得以維持。當兩個人在比較穩(wěn)定的期望值下的交流時間足夠長并且形成一種聯(lián)系時，這種聯(lián)系就可以稱為關系。
人與人之間的關系可以分為兩種：情感紐帶和工具紐帶。情感紐帶是當我們做情感投資并致力于他人的一種社會關系。通過和對我們來說十分重要的人交流從而得到安全感、愛情、認同、友誼以及個人價值等一系列情感。工具紐帶是我們?yōu)檫_到某種目的而與他人進行合作時產(chǎn)生的社會聯(lián)系方式。有些時候，這也許意味著變相與競爭者共事。更多的時候我們沒有發(fā)展出任何更有意義的關系而只是簡單的與他人合作達成目的。
社會學家基于情感紐帶與工具紐帶區(qū)別，將社會群體劃分成兩類：主要群體和次要群體。一個主要群體包含兩個以上成員，他們彼此之間的關系是直接的,親密的,聚合性的。情感紐帶在主要社群中起主導作用，我們把人們自身看做目標和人們自己權利的價值。次要群體也是由兩個以上成員組成，他們因非個人關系聚到一起都是為了一個特定的,實際的目標而努力。工具紐帶在次要群體中起了重要的作用。我們把人自身看做是人目標的途徑而不是人們自己權利的目標。有時主要群體的關系也會在次要群體中演化而來。這種現(xiàn)象在工作環(huán)境中時有發(fā)生。工作伙伴在共事過程中會彼此分享抱怨、玩笑、八卦以及滿足感，由此也會發(fā)展出親近的關系。
很多情況也會增加主要群體出現(xiàn)的可能性。首先，群體的規(guī)模非常重要。我們很難去了解那些散布在大群體中的某個人。而在小群體中我們有更多機會發(fā)起聯(lián)系并與他人建立關系。第二，面對面的交流能讓我們更好地了解彼此。與他人近距離接觸和交談可以更好地交流情感和思想。第三，頻繁持續(xù)的交流也能增加我們發(fā)展主要群體的可能性。我們與他人的聯(lián)系會隨著我們與他人的互動時間而加深，并逐漸演化出連鎖的習慣和興趣。
主要群體是人與人之間乃至整個社會的基礎。首先，主要群體在社會化進程中至關重要。在主要群體里，嬰兒與孩童可以學習處世方式。這種群體是我們社會生活必備規(guī)范和價值的培養(yǎng)地。社會學家將主要群體比作獨立個體與整個社會之間的橋梁，因為它能傳達,調解并解讀一個社會的文化模式，提供一種歸屬感有助于社會團結。
其次，主要群體之所以是基礎是因為它能提供滿足我們大多數(shù)人需求的環(huán)境。在主要群體中，我們可以收獲友情、愛情、安全感以及所有幸福的情感。社會學家發(fā)現(xiàn)一個群體的主要紐帶的強弱往往暗示著這個群體的功能，這不足為奇。例如，一個體育團隊的主要群體紐帶越強，他們就越容易取得好成績。
第三，主要群體之所以是基礎還因為他們充當了強有力的社會調控工具。群體中的成員掌控并分配能夠維持我們生存的極其重要的資源。如果獎勵方式不當，群體內成員就會通過拒絕或威脅來摒棄那些背離群體規(guī)范的人，例如，一些社會群體采取規(guī)避措施(人可以留在群體中，但禁止其他成員與其交流)，從而將特定群體中逾矩的個體慢慢同化與他人一致。更重要的是，主要群體通過構筑我們的經(jīng)驗來定義社會現(xiàn)實。他們根據(jù)我們的行為來定義我們的處境，以遵循群體分配的意義。因此，主要群體既是社會規(guī)范的載體同時也是社會規(guī)范的實施者。
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托福閱讀TPO13(試題+答案+譯文)第1篇:TypesofSocialGroups
